INDICATIONS OF INTERCONNECTEDNESS EMERGING FROM THE REVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DOMAIN OF MODERN SCIENCE

 

Note: All posts are interconnected, so you are requested to read the previous posts before reading this post. 

Implications of the Quantum Theory regarding Interconnectedness

Quantum mechanics reveals an intimate connection between the ‘object’ and ‘observer’. As summed up by Capra, “My conscious decision about how to observe, say, an electron will determine the electron’s properties to some extent. If I ask it a particle question, it will give me a particle answer, if I ask it a wave question, it will give me a wave answer. The electron does not have objective properties independent of my mind.” Thus, “Isolated material particles are abstractions, their properties being definable and observable only through their interaction with other systems”. Thus, in reality, Nature does not show any isolated building blocks but rather appears as a complicated web of relations between various parts of a unified whole, and the entire universe is a single indivisible unit.

Another remarkable feature of quantum theory, which indicates a deeper level of interconnectedness in particles is known as ‘Non-locality’. It defines the apparent tendency of objects to instantly recognize each other’s location, even if separated by large distances (possibly even billions of light-years). Non-locality arises because of the phenomenon of entanglement, whereby particles that interact with each other are permanently interconnected or dependent on the states and properties of each other, to the degree that they essentially lose their independence and function as a single entity in many ways. Various scientists like John Bell, Stuart Freedman, and John Clauser endorse the existence of this kind of characteristic of particles.

Rather than talking in the context of interconnectedness and casual relationships in all units, Bohm proposed a new nature of reality in terms of ‘wholeness’. He proposed a new field at the subquantum level the quantum potential that pervades everywhere with equal power and do not diminish with distance. One of the key characteristics of quantum potential is wholeness. It means the behavior of the parts is actually organized by the whole.  He even suggested that wholeness was the primary reality. Another important implication of the quantum potential is related to the nature of the location. In every day of lives, the specific location of things plays an important role. However, Bohm’s interpretation of quantum physics indicates there is no meaning of talking location at a subquantum level as location ceases to exist at that level. All the points become equal to the other points, thus, there is no meaning of talking separateness. This phenomenon is also known as ‘non-locality’. It implies that he indicates oneness at that level. He explains this oneness through an analogy: 

Suppose, there is a fish swimming in an aquarium. There are two cameras installed at a right angle as shown in the figure and you can see both views at different televisions. Now, suppose you are neither aware of the aquarium nor about cameras, and watching only television. You will mistakenly assume that the two fishes are different. But, after watching sometimes you will be aware that there is a relation between the two fishes as you will feel some movement in one fish with the movement in the other fish. If you are really not aware of the whole setup, you will immediately conclude that the fishes are instantaneously communicating as in the case of the nonlocality effect. But, in reality, there is no communication between the fishes, in fact, you are watching the same reality from different angles. 

From the above analogy, Bohm concludes that due to the all-pervading quantum potential, all particles are nonlocally interconnected. Thus, he indicates that all things are part of an unbroken and undivided web embedded in space. 

The Implicate and Explicate characteristics of the Universe

Explaining relation between the perceptible world and the quantum potential, Bohm explains the holographic characteristic of a hologram. Everyone of us is familiar with holograms – a three-dimensional image formed by the interference of light beams from a laser or other coherent light source. The name ‘hologram’ is derived from the Greek word ‘holo’ means ‘whole’ and ‘gram’ means ‘to write’. Thus, the hologram means to write whole. The important characteristic of a hologram is that each part of the hologram will reflect the whole object with varying intensity. Thus, each part of the hologram records the whole object. The form and structure of the whole object is enfolded within each region of the photographic record unfolded when one shines light on any region. Bohm called it as ‘implicate order (to fold inward)’ and ‘explicate order (to fold outward)’. Whatever, we see is actually the explicate order of a deeper reality of implicate order like a hologram. He sees the whole universe as a result of countless enfoldings and unfoldings between these two orders. Whenever we think of a hologram it gives an impression of a static image that fails to address the dynamic nature of the universe. Thus, Bohm prefers to use the term ‘holomovement’. 

 David Bohm brings out various aspects of the wholeness and inherent interconnectedness existing in the Universe in his book entitled ‘Wholeness and the Implicate Order’. The central theme of the book is the unbroken wholeness of the totality of existence as a continuous flowing movement without borders. Wholeness means that nothing could be understood in isolation, everything exists in relation to others. And ‘implicate’ means every element has detailed information about the other element. Bohm derives these characteristics of the Universe on the basis of the theory of relativity and quantum physics.

In addition to the above, Bohm believes that space is not a vacuum or empty. It is full of energy and a ground for the existence of everything, including ourselves.  Criticizing the fragmentary view of existence, Bohm asserts:

“The notion that all these fragments are separately in existence is evidently an illusion, and this illusion cannot do other than lead to endless conflicts and confusion. Indeed, the attempt to live according to the notion that the fragments are really separate is, in essence, what has led to the growing series of extremely urgent crises that is confronting us today. Thus, as is now well known, this way of life has brought about pollution, destruction of the balance of nature, over-population, worldwide economic and political disorder, and the creation of an overall environment that is neither physically nor mentally healthy for most of the people who have to live in it.”

 As a consequence of these developments, science itself is demanding a new, nonfragmentary worldview, in the sense that the present approach of analysis of the world into independently existent parts does not work very well in modern physics. It is shown that both, in relativity theory and quantum theory, notions implying the undivided wholeness of the Universe would provide a much more orderly way of considering the general Nature of reality.

TWENTIETH-CENTURY PARADIGM

 

Note: All posts are interconnected, so you are requested to read the previous posts before reading this post. 

Twentieth Century has witnessed a series of revolutionary developments in science, seriously challenging the Newtonian Vision of the Universe as a Giant Machine. The worldview emerging from the twentieth-century developments could eventually lead to a 'holistic' or 'humanistic' worldview. In this and onward sections, we shall attempt to bring out the salient features of this emerging paradigm from various domains of science. 

Deductions from Ecological Studies

 Ecological Principles showing dynamic interconnectedness:

In 1866, the German biologist Ernst Haeckel came up with the term ecology derived from the Greek word oikos (household) implies the study of Earth household and defined as the comprehensive science of the organism’s relationship with their environment. Hereafter, various authors proposed several definitions of ecology. The intention behind all the definitions is to understand the relationship of an organism with its environment. Thus, we can say that Ecology is the systematic and scientific study of organism-to-environment interactions. The environment includes both biotic (living organism) and abiotic (non-living organism). Ecology is not only biology but also an interdisciplinary science dealing with the totality of living organisms and their connections with the surroundings.

A fundamental concept of Ecology is that each living organism has a continuous relationship with all the rest that makes up its environment. The total sum of the biotic and abiotic environment is called the ecosystem such as ponds, forests, mountains, etc. The whole Nature is a collection of such ecosystems that are interconnected with each other and dynamic in time and space. This is known as ecological balance.

From a network perspective, Ecology may be seen as a network of interrelated networks in the form of a web of life where interactions between an organism and its environment can only be understood with the understanding of networks. It means that each node of the network is a network itself. Thus, the perspective implies that nothing can be understood in isolation due to the web of networks. Capra brings out the following six fundamental principles of ecology to account for the sustainability of Nature:

 (i)  Interdependence (Networks)

Each member of an ecological community is interdependently entwined in a complex web of interactions. Their existing properties and survival are an outcome of their interactions with the rest. The sustainability of each member depends on the sustainability of the whole while the sustainability of the whole depends on the sustainability of its members. Interdependence exists due to inherent relationships that can be visualized through a perceptional change – from the parts to the whole, from objects to relationships, and from contents to patterns.

(ii)  Cycles

Cycles play an important role to feed the whole ecological community. There is no waste in ecosystems due to interconnected cycles that help matter and energy to flow from one place to another place. One’s waste becomes input (food) for another.

(iii)   Solar Energy

The ecosystems use renewable sources of energy. The primary source of the energy is Sun. The sun’s energy is transformed into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis and drives all ecological cycles. 

(iv)   Partnership

Partnership implies an inherent tendency to cooperate, recognition of relationships, and mutual support which are pervasive in ecosystems. In fact, the conductive environment for living organisms is an outcome of cooperation, partnership, and networking.

(v)  Diversity

Diversity helps ensure the stability and resilience of the ecosystem. More diversity means more networks that result in more resilience. For example, When a particular species is wiped out by a severe disturbance, a varied community can survive and rearrange itself, because other links in the network can perform at least some of the functions of the wiped-out species.

(vi)  Dynamic Balance

An ecosystem maintains itself dynamically with the help of multiple feedback loops.  

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The Closing Circle

Ecologist Barry Commoner in his book “The Closing Circle” mentions the complex relationships and interdependencies in ecological systems on the basis of the following considerations;      

(i) Everything is connected to everything else 

(ii) Everything has to go somewhere 

(iii) Everything is always changing 

(iv) There is no such thing as a free lunch. Let us look at these in some more detail.

‘Everything is Connected to Everything else’

This law indicates the existence of intricately interconnected networks of relationships among organisms and their physicochemical environment. He explained the first Law through examples like food chains and webs. The source of energy on Earth is Sun. Energy from the sun goes to plants and is consumed by the primary consumers (herbivores) which are, in turn, consumed by the secondary consumers (carnivores). In a similar manner, the mouse eats hundreds of various plants and an owl consumes mice along with various other animals. In this way, both animals and plants are linked by hundreds of food chains making a complex food web. For common people, the chain may seem rather disorganized but actually, it is highly structured and stable.

‘Everything has to Go Somewhere'

This law emphasizes that there is no ‘waste’ in ecosystems. One’s waste becomes food for others. For example, animals release carbon dioxide as respiratory waste, an essential nutrient for green plants. Plants excrete oxygen, which is used by animals. Animal organic wastes nourish the bacteria of decay. Their wastes, inorganic materials such as nitrate, phosphate, and carbon dioxide, become algal nutrients.

‘Everything is always Changing’

The species found in a community of plants and animals do not remain the same forever. This transition is called the succession of ecology. The first phase in succession, called the pioneer stage, starts with lichens growing on bare rock. Eventually, enough soil is generated to provide the nutrients needed to support grass and herbal production. Seeds from briars, shrubs, vines and trees are blown or transported to the site by animals or water, where they can germinate eventually. Soon the trees and shrubs begin to grow, the grasses and herbs compete, and a new forest begins. Changes in plants occur until the last stage of succession, a climax group, is reached. The animal population is also witnessing several changes when one successive phase transitions to another. In the grasses and herbs of early succession, rabbits, meadow mice and groundhogs etc. seek abundant food. When grasses and herbs are replaced by shrubs and trees, deer and grouse are increasing in numbers. Thus, the species are undergoing constant change.

‘There is no Such Thing as a Free Lunch’

This signifies that the exploitation of nature always carries an ecological cost. From a strict ecological standpoint, human beings are consumers more than they are producers. And if this continues, environmental degradation becomes inevitable. The dominant pattern of modern development is clearly counter-ecological. In this development, all social relations between people and all the relationships of humans to nature are reduced to mere economic relations. Everything we eat, wear and use during our lifetime has only monetary and environmental costs.

Commoner says that the ecosystem is like a net, in which multiple strands connect each knot to another. Such a fabric can withstand collapse better than a straightforward, unbranched circle of threads, which breaks down as a whole if cut anywhere. Botkin and Keller call this interconnectedness as ‘Environmental Unity’ which implies that nothing can be changed individually, everything effects everything else. Various examples showing interconnectedness are mentioned in their book - ‘Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet’ . An excerpt from the book is quoted below;

“When cities, such as Chicago and Indianapolis, were developed in the eastern and midwestern United States, the clearing of forests and prairies and the construction of buildings and paved streets increased surface-water runoff and soil erosion, which in turn affected the shape of river channels—some eroded soil was deposited on the bottom of the channel, reducing channel depth and increasing flood hazard. Increased fine sediment made the water muddy, and street and yard runoff chemicals polluted the stream. These changes affected fish and other life in the river and terrestrial wildlife that depended on the river. The point here is that land-use conversion can set off a series of changes in the environment, and each change is likely to trigger additional changes.”