INDICATIONS OF INTERCONNECTEDNESS EMERGING FROM THE REVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DOMAIN OF MODERN SCIENCE

 

Note: All posts are interconnected, so you are requested to read the previous posts before reading this post. 

Implications of the Quantum Theory regarding Interconnectedness

Quantum mechanics reveals an intimate connection between the ‘object’ and ‘observer’. As summed up by Capra, “My conscious decision about how to observe, say, an electron will determine the electron’s properties to some extent. If I ask it a particle question, it will give me a particle answer, if I ask it a wave question, it will give me a wave answer. The electron does not have objective properties independent of my mind.” Thus, “Isolated material particles are abstractions, their properties being definable and observable only through their interaction with other systems”. Thus, in reality, Nature does not show any isolated building blocks but rather appears as a complicated web of relations between various parts of a unified whole, and the entire universe is a single indivisible unit.

Another remarkable feature of quantum theory, which indicates a deeper level of interconnectedness in particles is known as ‘Non-locality’. It defines the apparent tendency of objects to instantly recognize each other’s location, even if separated by large distances (possibly even billions of light-years). Non-locality arises because of the phenomenon of entanglement, whereby particles that interact with each other are permanently interconnected or dependent on the states and properties of each other, to the degree that they essentially lose their independence and function as a single entity in many ways. Various scientists like John Bell, Stuart Freedman, and John Clauser endorse the existence of this kind of characteristic of particles.

Rather than talking in the context of interconnectedness and casual relationships in all units, Bohm proposed a new nature of reality in terms of ‘wholeness’. He proposed a new field at the subquantum level the quantum potential that pervades everywhere with equal power and do not diminish with distance. One of the key characteristics of quantum potential is wholeness. It means the behavior of the parts is actually organized by the whole.  He even suggested that wholeness was the primary reality. Another important implication of the quantum potential is related to the nature of the location. In every day of lives, the specific location of things plays an important role. However, Bohm’s interpretation of quantum physics indicates there is no meaning of talking location at a subquantum level as location ceases to exist at that level. All the points become equal to the other points, thus, there is no meaning of talking separateness. This phenomenon is also known as ‘non-locality’. It implies that he indicates oneness at that level. He explains this oneness through an analogy: 

Suppose, there is a fish swimming in an aquarium. There are two cameras installed at a right angle as shown in the figure and you can see both views at different televisions. Now, suppose you are neither aware of the aquarium nor about cameras, and watching only television. You will mistakenly assume that the two fishes are different. But, after watching sometimes you will be aware that there is a relation between the two fishes as you will feel some movement in one fish with the movement in the other fish. If you are really not aware of the whole setup, you will immediately conclude that the fishes are instantaneously communicating as in the case of the nonlocality effect. But, in reality, there is no communication between the fishes, in fact, you are watching the same reality from different angles. 

From the above analogy, Bohm concludes that due to the all-pervading quantum potential, all particles are nonlocally interconnected. Thus, he indicates that all things are part of an unbroken and undivided web embedded in space. 

The Implicate and Explicate characteristics of the Universe

Explaining relation between the perceptible world and the quantum potential, Bohm explains the holographic characteristic of a hologram. Everyone of us is familiar with holograms – a three-dimensional image formed by the interference of light beams from a laser or other coherent light source. The name ‘hologram’ is derived from the Greek word ‘holo’ means ‘whole’ and ‘gram’ means ‘to write’. Thus, the hologram means to write whole. The important characteristic of a hologram is that each part of the hologram will reflect the whole object with varying intensity. Thus, each part of the hologram records the whole object. The form and structure of the whole object is enfolded within each region of the photographic record unfolded when one shines light on any region. Bohm called it as ‘implicate order (to fold inward)’ and ‘explicate order (to fold outward)’. Whatever, we see is actually the explicate order of a deeper reality of implicate order like a hologram. He sees the whole universe as a result of countless enfoldings and unfoldings between these two orders. Whenever we think of a hologram it gives an impression of a static image that fails to address the dynamic nature of the universe. Thus, Bohm prefers to use the term ‘holomovement’. 

 David Bohm brings out various aspects of the wholeness and inherent interconnectedness existing in the Universe in his book entitled ‘Wholeness and the Implicate Order’. The central theme of the book is the unbroken wholeness of the totality of existence as a continuous flowing movement without borders. Wholeness means that nothing could be understood in isolation, everything exists in relation to others. And ‘implicate’ means every element has detailed information about the other element. Bohm derives these characteristics of the Universe on the basis of the theory of relativity and quantum physics.

In addition to the above, Bohm believes that space is not a vacuum or empty. It is full of energy and a ground for the existence of everything, including ourselves.  Criticizing the fragmentary view of existence, Bohm asserts:

“The notion that all these fragments are separately in existence is evidently an illusion, and this illusion cannot do other than lead to endless conflicts and confusion. Indeed, the attempt to live according to the notion that the fragments are really separate is, in essence, what has led to the growing series of extremely urgent crises that is confronting us today. Thus, as is now well known, this way of life has brought about pollution, destruction of the balance of nature, over-population, worldwide economic and political disorder, and the creation of an overall environment that is neither physically nor mentally healthy for most of the people who have to live in it.”

 As a consequence of these developments, science itself is demanding a new, nonfragmentary worldview, in the sense that the present approach of analysis of the world into independently existent parts does not work very well in modern physics. It is shown that both, in relativity theory and quantum theory, notions implying the undivided wholeness of the Universe would provide a much more orderly way of considering the general Nature of reality.

INDICATIONS OF INTERCONNECTEDNESS EMERGING FROM THE REVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DOMAIN OF MODERN SCIENCE

 

Note: All posts are interconnected, so you are requested to read the previous posts before reading this post. 

Implications of the Theory of Relativity regarding Interconnectedness

The perception of interconnectedness in the scientific domain can be traced to the theory of relativity given by the well-known scientist Albert Einstein during the 20^th century. The theory of relativity provided a serious jolt to some of the fundamental tenets of the mechanistic worldview propagated in the 17^th century. The worldview considered the world as a collection of independent entities situated outside of each other in different ‘regions’ and ‘space’, working under various external forces. In this way, the dimensions – region and space – were considered independent. It implies that everything appears the same to everyone else in the cosmos, regardless of their position or velocity. Thus, two observers traveling in opposite directions would observe identical events unfolding. This can be thought of as a large machine where various parts are working under some external factors.

Einstein’s theory of relativity brought a revolutionary change in perception about space and time.  According to this theory, both space and time are relative concepts. Whereas Einstein believed that objects move according to distortion in space, while the distinction between space and time depends on the frame of reference. He proposed a ‘relativistic’ framework to understand the movements of various objects in the cosmos. In such a framework, time and space are interdependently, interconnectedly, and inseparably connected,  and form a four-dimensional continuum called ‘space-time’. It implies that we cannot leave ‘space’ while talking about ‘time’ and vice-versa.  Both Mikowski and Einstein evolved the integrated perspective of space and time in which "space by itself and time by itself are . .. mere shadows and only a sort of union of the two will preserve an independent reality. It implies that just as it makes no sense in our everyday life to ask for the real length of somebody’s shadows, it makes no sense to ask for ‘the real size of the object’ .

He proposed a ‘unified field theory ’ which means there is the widespread existence of various interconnected fields that move as a ‘whole ’ through ‘space’. According to the theory, the whole universe including all ‘particles’, human beings, their laboratories, observing instruments, etc. is a single undivided whole where fundamental characteristics of an individual object cannot be understood.

Einstein, commenting in the context of the interconnected nature of our Universe, said;

“A human being is a part of a whole, called by us universe, a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the rest. . . a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and affection for a few persons nearest us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty”.

Twentieth Century Paradigm: Ecological Evidence Showing Interconnectedness

 

GAIA THEORY

Note: All posts are interconnected, so you are requested to read the previous posts before reading this post. 

In the previous section, the interaction of individual species with their environment was highlighted. The Gaia theory introduces a further ‘paradigm shift’ taking Earth as a single self-regulated organism, composed of all life tightly coupled with the air, the oceans, and the surface rocks, rather than focusing on various parts. This new paradigm shift was proposed by James Lovelock in the 70’s, as Gaia Hypothesis which became one of the most hotly-debated topics within scientific community.

This revolutionary hypothesis strongly points towards the dynamic interconnectedness and self-regulating nature of our planet Earth. It propounds that the Earth functions as an interconnected living organism which maintains conditions necessary for its survival. Lovelock defines Gaia as,

“. . . a complex entity involving the Earth’s biosphere, atmosphere, oceans and soil; the totality constituting a feedback or cybernetic system which seeks an optimal physical and chemical environment for life on this planet.”

Thus, Lovelock proposes that the planet earth apparently exhibits the strange property of keeping itself always fit and comfortable place for living things to inhabit. Our biosphere is the 3-dimensional geographic region where living organisms exist. Self-regulation is the property of the whole evolving system of life, air, ocean and rocks. This has been called the Gaia Theory.

 In the Gaian perception, our species along with its technology is simply inevitable part of the larger Natural scene. The three principal characteristics of Gaia as described below are considered important;

1.  Gaia’s most significant characteristic is the tendency to maintain constant conditions for all terrestrial life, provided, the state of homoeostatis[1] (of Gaia) is not interfered by human beings.

2.    Gaia has vital organs at its heart, as well as those that are expendable or redundant primarily at the periphery. What we are doing to our world will significantly depend on where we are doing it.

3.    Gaian responses to changes for the worse must follow cybernetic laws where the time constant and the gain in the chain are important factors.

Commenting on the prevailing worldview, Lovelock mentioned that we human beings are too obsessed with the belief that all that matters is the ‘good’ of human kind while foolishly forgetting how much we depend upon all the other living things on this planet. We need to love and respect the Earth with the same intensity that we give to our families and our tribe for our own happy survival. Thus, according to Gaia hypothesis we are parts of a greater whole. Our destiny is not dependent merely for what we do for ourselves but also what we do for Gaia as a whole. If we endanger her, she will dispense with us in the interest of higher value -life itself.

 Some Evidences Showing Self-Regulation

Following are scientific pieces of evidences given by Lovelock in his book titled as ‘Gaia Theory’ which indicate the self-regulated characteristics of Nature;

 Regulation of Earth’s Temperature

The systems of planet Earth can be thought of analogous to the workings of any individual organism, say, a human body, that regulates body temperature, blood salinity etc. So for instance, even though the luminosity of the sun – the Earth’s heat source – has increased by about 30 percent since life began almost four billion years ago, the living system has reacted as a whole to maintain temperatures at levels suitable for life.

Regulation of Salinity in the Oceans

There are evidences, directly and indirectly, which show that the salinity level of sea - water has varied very little in hundreds of millions of years from what is required to sustain life of sea creatures. It is incredible to understand that, despite broad flux differences as well as evaporation rates, the salinity of sea water is quite tightly self-regulated around 3.4 percent, making it conducive to aquatic animals.

 Constancy of water at Sea Level

Lovelock claims that there are evidences which show that the total volume of water, which is approximately 1.2 thousand million cubic kilometers, remains unchanged while the continents formed and deformed, sea level rose and fell, the polar ice melted and refroze.

Thus, Gaia theory clearly points towards the fact that there is interconnectedness and self-regulation or a dynamic order in Nature even without the intervention of human beings.

 

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[1] The tendency is towards a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements, especially maintained by physiological processes.

Twentieth Century Paradigm: Ecological Evidence Showing Interconnectedness

 

Note: All posts are interconnected, so you are requested to read the previous posts before reading this post. 

Trophic Cascade 

The interconnectedness in various species can also be understood through an ecological phenomenon known as ‘Trophic Cascade’ coined by Rober Paine in 1980. It is caused by adding or removing top predators and causing reciprocal changes in predator and prey relative populations through a food chain, often leading to drastic changes in the structure of the ecosystem and nutrient cycling. For example, the absence of mountain lions in Zion National Park resulted in a decline in cottonwood trees due to an unchecked population of herbivores. Consequently, these changes in plant communities resulted in an increased stream erosion and a decline in the number of terrestrial and aquatic species including wild flowers, butterflies, reptiles and amphibians. While the addition of lions affected the overall variety of various species. It is found that the number of native fishes were also higher in the presence of Lions than in those without Lions. As another example, the elimination and gradual reintroduction of wolves in areas such as the Rocky Mountains has disclosed to researchers that in areas where wolves are absent, uncontrolled populations decrease the abundance of native plant species and their overgrazing leads to widespread destruction of forests and riparian habitats. While the reintroduction of wolves restores these ecosystems and further decreases the number of coyotes, thus improving pronghorn antelopes and other small mammals. The ethologist Rober Fantz demonstrates through experiments how species are born with the innate knowledge of the environment and maintain a harmonious relationship with it.

Normally, Darwin’s work is believed to have encouraged the attitude of ‘survival of the fittest’ thereby the powerful assuming the right to suppress and exploit the weaker ones. However, let us look at the following statement given in the last paragraph of Darwin’s ‘The Origin of Species’ which very much corroborates diversity and interdependence existing in Nature;

 “It is interesting to contemplate a tangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent upon each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us.”

Systems Ecology

Systems ecology focuses on the properties of ecosystems from a system approach. For example, to see a forest through trees. Jorgensen defines six properties of ecosystems from a system perspective: (i) Ecosystems Are Open Systems – all ecosystems are open to exchange matter, energy, and information with the environment. (ii) Ecosystems Have a Hierarchical Organization- There is a hierarchy in ecosystems (molecules, cells, organs, species, populations, ecosystems, landscapes, regions, and the ecosphere) with various advantages such as any loss due to malfunctioning at any level may be repaired by other components of networks on the lower level. Thus higher networking means less vulnerability; each level has enough inherent ability to integrate the functions of the lower level and to coordinate with the functions of the upper level etc. (iii) Ecosystems Have a High Diversity- the ecosystems exist with high diversity that ensures a wide spectrum of services in networks. (iv) Ecosystems Have a High Buffer Capacity. (v) The Components of Ecosystems Form Ecological Networks- the components of ecosystems are enough capable to form networks. Recycling and reusing of matter and energy are made possible because of the networks. (vi) Ecosystems have a very high content of information- an individual has enough information to coordinate with its networks.

Deep Ecology

In 1973, the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss coined the phrase ‘Deep Ecology’ which is considered as an ecological and environmental philosophy promoting the inherent value of all living beings in the natural system regardless of their utility to human beings. It also gives guidelines for modern human societies to live with ecological balance. Deep Ecology proponents believe that Nature is not a resource that can be exploited freely to any extent by human beings. It is not difficult to observe that material goods do not guarantee fulfillment beyond a very moderate level and the biosphere is also threatened by over-consumption. Then, it seems imperative to define a new non-consumptive health paradigm. The ethics of deep ecology considers that the survival of any individual species -biotic or non-biotic- depends on the well-being of the ‘whole’ and offers eight principles to encapsulate this view. These are;

1. The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth have intrinsic value in themselves. These values are independent of the perceived usefulness of the non-human world for human purposes.

2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are also values in themselves.

3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs.

4. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantially smaller population. The flourishing of non-human life also requires a smaller human population.

5. Present human interference with the non-human world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening.

6. Policies must therefore be changed. These policies affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.

7. The ideological change will be mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to the so-called ‘higher standard’ of living.

8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to try to implement the necessary changes.

Summing up all the above guidelines, it may be concluded that there is rich biodiversity and complex dynamic interconnectedness in Nature having inherent value regardless of their utility to human beings. Human policies and activities must be in coherence with these diversities.