Twentieth Century Paradigm: Ecological Evidence Showing Interconnectedness

 

Note: All posts are interconnected, so you are requested to read the previous posts before reading this post. 

Trophic Cascade 

The interconnectedness in various species can also be understood through an ecological phenomenon known as ‘Trophic Cascade’ coined by Rober Paine in 1980. It is caused by adding or removing top predators and causing reciprocal changes in predator and prey relative populations through a food chain, often leading to drastic changes in the structure of the ecosystem and nutrient cycling. For example, the absence of mountain lions in Zion National Park resulted in a decline in cottonwood trees due to an unchecked population of herbivores. Consequently, these changes in plant communities resulted in an increased stream erosion and a decline in the number of terrestrial and aquatic species including wild flowers, butterflies, reptiles and amphibians. While the addition of lions affected the overall variety of various species. It is found that the number of native fishes were also higher in the presence of Lions than in those without Lions. As another example, the elimination and gradual reintroduction of wolves in areas such as the Rocky Mountains has disclosed to researchers that in areas where wolves are absent, uncontrolled populations decrease the abundance of native plant species and their overgrazing leads to widespread destruction of forests and riparian habitats. While the reintroduction of wolves restores these ecosystems and further decreases the number of coyotes, thus improving pronghorn antelopes and other small mammals. The ethologist Rober Fantz demonstrates through experiments how species are born with the innate knowledge of the environment and maintain a harmonious relationship with it.

Normally, Darwin’s work is believed to have encouraged the attitude of ‘survival of the fittest’ thereby the powerful assuming the right to suppress and exploit the weaker ones. However, let us look at the following statement given in the last paragraph of Darwin’s ‘The Origin of Species’ which very much corroborates diversity and interdependence existing in Nature;

 “It is interesting to contemplate a tangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent upon each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us.”

Systems Ecology

Systems ecology focuses on the properties of ecosystems from a system approach. For example, to see a forest through trees. Jorgensen defines six properties of ecosystems from a system perspective: (i) Ecosystems Are Open Systems – all ecosystems are open to exchange matter, energy, and information with the environment. (ii) Ecosystems Have a Hierarchical Organization- There is a hierarchy in ecosystems (molecules, cells, organs, species, populations, ecosystems, landscapes, regions, and the ecosphere) with various advantages such as any loss due to malfunctioning at any level may be repaired by other components of networks on the lower level. Thus higher networking means less vulnerability; each level has enough inherent ability to integrate the functions of the lower level and to coordinate with the functions of the upper level etc. (iii) Ecosystems Have a High Diversity- the ecosystems exist with high diversity that ensures a wide spectrum of services in networks. (iv) Ecosystems Have a High Buffer Capacity. (v) The Components of Ecosystems Form Ecological Networks- the components of ecosystems are enough capable to form networks. Recycling and reusing of matter and energy are made possible because of the networks. (vi) Ecosystems have a very high content of information- an individual has enough information to coordinate with its networks.

Deep Ecology

In 1973, the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss coined the phrase ‘Deep Ecology’ which is considered as an ecological and environmental philosophy promoting the inherent value of all living beings in the natural system regardless of their utility to human beings. It also gives guidelines for modern human societies to live with ecological balance. Deep Ecology proponents believe that Nature is not a resource that can be exploited freely to any extent by human beings. It is not difficult to observe that material goods do not guarantee fulfillment beyond a very moderate level and the biosphere is also threatened by over-consumption. Then, it seems imperative to define a new non-consumptive health paradigm. The ethics of deep ecology considers that the survival of any individual species -biotic or non-biotic- depends on the well-being of the ‘whole’ and offers eight principles to encapsulate this view. These are;

1. The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth have intrinsic value in themselves. These values are independent of the perceived usefulness of the non-human world for human purposes.

2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are also values in themselves.

3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs.

4. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantially smaller population. The flourishing of non-human life also requires a smaller human population.

5. Present human interference with the non-human world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening.

6. Policies must therefore be changed. These policies affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.

7. The ideological change will be mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to the so-called ‘higher standard’ of living.

8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to try to implement the necessary changes.

Summing up all the above guidelines, it may be concluded that there is rich biodiversity and complex dynamic interconnectedness in Nature having inherent value regardless of their utility to human beings. Human policies and activities must be in coherence with these diversities.